Fear motivation Essay

If you remember the movie Office Space, you might remember this great line where Peter (the guy trying to get fired) says â€Å"If you motivate people by fear, they will do just enough to get by and not get fired. This is the saddest of all motivational factors. Fear of rejection, fear of loss of respect, loss of money and country club status. It’s related to the above motivations, but from a different perspective. People who are motivated by fear are motivated from a position of having made it and are afraid of losing it. Its real difference is in its motivational power. Fear can be a strong motivator. . It’s one of the oldest forms of motivation and one of the most powerful†¦in certain situations. Most fears today are intangible fears. They are extremely powerful for the very reason that they are hard to find. Humans react to fear or threat in many ways, but those reactions can usually be divided up into the two categories of Fight or Flight. That is to say that when people are threatened they will either attack the threat or run away from it. This of course can be done physically or mentally. As a tool to motivate people, fear has many disadvantages. Fear based motivation causes resentment resistance and revenge. It is seen for what it is, an attack. By its very nature, fear is not sustaining or sustainable without negative consequences. People who are motivated by fear will seek ways to extricate themselves from the situation that causes the fear. This will not always be done by fulfilling the desire of the ‘motivator’. Threatening someone that they will be fired if they do not do their job correctly may have an impact upon the person causing them to try to improve their performance. However, that motivation is based on external forces and it requires that someone always be there to impose the threat. Because of these things, Fear motivation is the weakest force in our motivation definitions list and is reserved for the week and uneducated individuals who attempts to gain power by force.

Florence Nightingale Essay

The Polar Area Diagrams of Florence Nightingale If you read the article on Florence Nightingale in â€Å"The Children’s Book of Famous Lives†1 you will not learn that she had to battle with her parents to be allowed to study Mathematics. If you read the Ladybird book â€Å"Florence Nightingale†2 you will not discover that she was the first woman to be elected as a Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. In looking around for an area of research I was intrigued to discover that Florence Nightingale, who I always thought of as the â€Å"lady with the lamp†, was a competent Mathematician who created her own type of statistical diagram which she used to save thousands of soldiers from needless death. Florence Nightingale headed a group of 38 nurses who went to clean up the hospitals for the British soldiers in the Crimea in 1854. She found that most of the deaths were due to diseases which could be prevented by basic hygiene, such as typhus and cholera. Her improvements were simple but they had an enormous effect: â€Å"She and her nurses washed and bathed the soldiers, laundered their linens, gave them clean beds to lie in, and fed them†3. When she returned to Britain she made a detailed report to the Government setting out what conditions were like and what needed to be done to reduce deaths in the hospitals. Nothing was done, so she tried again, making another statistical report and included in it three new statistical diagrams to make data collated by William Farr more accessible to people who could not get their minds around tables of figures. These were her polar area diagrams or rose diagrams, sometimes also known as ‘coxcombs’. The first showed how many men had died over the two years 1854-5, the second showed what proportions of men had died from wounds in battle, from disease and from other causes, the third showed how the number of deaths had decreased once â€Å"sanitary improvements†4 had been introduced. I decided I would try to recreate the second of these diagrams which is the most complicated and the most shocking. It is called â€Å"Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the east†. A copy of it is below: Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 1 Example 6: Student work Figure 1 The basic ideas are very simple. The blue area represents deaths due to disease, the red area represents death due to wounds in battle and the black area represents death due to other causes. I tried to find a copy of the data which this diagram represented, but I had no luck, so I decided to make sure I understood exactly how the diagram was made and to make my own version of some data which I did have to hand. Once I tried to understand the diagram in detail I found there were some problems. The First Problem I wasn’t sure whether the black area in a shape such as this: was supposed to be this area or this area Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 2 Example 6: Student work In other words, were the colours separate, or overlapping? The articles I read didn’t make it clear. O’Connor says that â€Å"The area of each coloured wedge, measured from the centre as a common point, is in proportion to the statistic it represents†5, which makes it seem that all colours are wedged shaped, or sectors, so the colours overlap. However, Lienhard commented that in the November 1854 section â€Å"battle deaths take up a very small portion of each slice†6, which makes it sound as though the slice has three separate portions, and Brasseur says that â€Å"she also divided the areas within each of the wedges to show which portion of the mortality data for that month could be allotted to each cause of death†4. I decided to construct polar area diagrams for a set of data with the colours separate and with the colours overlapping to see if putting theory into practice would make it clearer to me. The data I used was taken from the IB grade distribution statistics for the past 15 years at my own institution. I used the numbers taking Higher Mathematics, Standard Mathematics and Mathematical Studies to be represented by my three colours. I took the old Mathematical Methods course to be the same as Standard Mathematics. To fit 15 sectors into the circle I needed each arc to subtend an angle of 2Ï€ radians at 15 1 2Ï€ Ï€ the centre. The area of each sector would then be A = r 2 = 2 where r is the r Ãâ€" 2 15 15 radius of the sector. Since the area needs to be proportional to the statistic, I needed to 15A and just used a scale which would allow me to draw find the radius, so I used r = a reasonable sized diagram. To create a polar area diagram with overlapping sectors I just used this formula on each of the numbers of students taking the various options. Numbers taking Mathematics year on year Numbers (A) Higher Studies Standard 1995 1 24 0 1996 4 15 0 1997 8 10 0 1998 6 31 0 1999 9 17 0 2000 10 20 0 2001 4 31 1 2002 5 21 2 2003 4 15 4 2004 5 29 5 2005 1 28 0 2006 3 16 2 2007 8 13 0 2008 11 29 14 2009 10 23 15 Radius ( r ) Higher Studies Standard 2.2 10.7 0.0 4.4 8.5 0.0 6.2 6.9 0.0 5.4 12.2 0.0 6.6 9.0 0.0 6.9 9.8 0.0 4.4 12.2 2.2 4.9 10.0 3.1 4.4 8.5 4.4 4.9 11.8 4.9 2.2 11.6 0.0 3.8 8.7 3.1 6.2 7.9 0.0 7.2 11.8 8.2 6.9 10.5 8.5 Ï€ Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 3 Example 6: Student work I then used a geometric program (GeoGebra) to draw the sectors all with a common 2Ï€ centre, each with an angle of radians, and with the radii as given in the table. I drew 15 the Higher sectors first with the Studies on top of these, and the Standard on top of these. This was the result: Figure 2 Polar area diagram to show students taking Mathematics at one school (colours overlapping) Blue represents the number of students taking Higher Maths. Brown represents the number of students taking Mathematical Studies. Green represents the number of students taking Standard Maths. The colours are not solid, so where colours overlap there is a different colour. The blue overlapping the brown makes a pink here, and the green overlapping the blue makes a darker green. In 2003 and in 2004 there were an equal number of students taking Higher and Standard so three separate colours cannot be seen on the diagram. Next I worked out the radii needed if the colours were not to overlap. For this I used cumulative areas to work out the radii. R1 = R3 = 15 ( A1 + A2 + A3) 15 A1 15 ( A1 + A2 ) Ï€ , R2 = Ï€ and Ï€ . Radii R2 10.9 9.5 9.3 13.3 11.1 12.0 12.9 11.1 9.5 12.7 11.8 9.5 10.0 13.8 12.6 Numbers taking Mathematics year on year Numbers (A) Higher (A1) Studies (A2) Standard (A3) 1995 1 24 0 1996 4 15 0 1997 8 10 0 1998 6 31 0 1999 9 17 0 2000 10 20 0 2001 4 31 1 2002 5 21 2 2003 4 15 4 2004 5 29 5 2005 1 28 0 2006 3 16 2 2007 8 13 0 2008 11 29 14 2009 10 23 15 R1 2.2 4.4 6.2 5.4 6.6 6.9 4.4 4.9 4.4 4.9 2.2 3.8 6.2 7.2 6.9 R3 10.9 9.5 9.3 13.3 11.1 12.0 13.1 11.6 10.5 13.6 11.8 10.0 10.0 16.1 15.1 Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 4 Example 6: Student work This gave a diagram with Higher numbers at the centre and Standard numbers at the edge, like this: Figure 3 Polar area diagram to show students taking Mathematics at one school (colours separate) Blue represents the number of students taking Higher Maths. Brown represents the number of students taking Mathematical Studies. Green represents the number of students taking Standard Maths. This diagram is incomplete in that it has not got the dates on it, but I was interested in the basic shape it would make rather than seeing it as a finished article to represent the data. I decided to do the same thing but with Studies in the middle and Higher at the edge to see how different it would look. Figure 4 Polar area diagram to show students taking Mathematics at one school (colours separate) Blue represents the number of students taking Higher Maths. Brown represents the number of students taking Mathematical Studies. Green represents the number of students taking Standard Maths. This feels very different. The blue section actually looks less significant, to my eye, being put at the edges. This made me think of something else I had read in Brasseur’s article, â€Å"Nightingale arranged these colored areas so that the main cause of death (and the largest sections)—deaths by disease—would be at the end of the wedges and would be more easily noticed.†4 I am sure that Brasseur thought that the colours were separate, and not overlapped. However, comparing my diagrams to Nightingale’s original in Figure 1, I Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 5 Example 6: Student work became sure that she did mean them to be overlapped. I noticed that in the lefthand rose in figure 1 (representing the second year) there is a wedge with blue at the edge followed by a wedge with blue at the edge: Figure 5 A zoom in of part of figure 1 This can happen in a diagram like my figure 2 of overlapping colours, but would be impossible if the colours are separate as in figures 3 and 4. From this I deduced that the colours on the diagram must be overlapping. The Second Problem My diagrams were unlike Nightingale’s ones in that the total area of the sectors in figure 2 represented the total number of students taking the IB at this school over the 15 years. Nightingale’s statistics were rates of mortality. Basically they can be thought of as percentages of soldiers who died, but, as before, when I read through the articles again, I was unsure what they were percentages of. Gill and Gill have table (Table 2) in their article with headings â€Å"No. of soldiers admitted to the hospital† and â€Å"No. (%) of soldiers who died†3. This might suggest that Nightingale was working with percentages of soldiers who were admitted into hospital. Lewi is more definite and refers to the actual statistic of one wedge of the third of Nightingale’s polar area diagrams as follows: â€Å"The mortality during the first period was 192 per 1,000 hospitalized soldiers (on a yearly basis)†9. However, Brasseur refers to the statistic in a wedge of Nightingale’s first diagram as being â€Å"the ratio of mortality for every 1,000 soldiers per annum in the field†4, in other words a percentage of the army actually on duty. I decided to create a polar area diagram to act as an analogy to the possible situations as follows: Nightingale’s data My data Number of soldiers in the army in a month Number of students taking the IB in a year Number of soldiers taken to hospital Number of students taking Maths Studies Number of soldiers dying of wounds Number of students gaining grade 7 Number of soldiers dyin g of disease Number of students gaining grade 6 Number of soldiers dying for other reasons Number of students gaining grade 5 My analogy of drawing a diagram showing the numbers of soldiers dying as a percentage of those admitted to hospital would then be the number of students gaining a grade above 4 as a percentage of those taking Mathematical Studies. I decided to do this one by hand, partly to prove I could, and partly to see if it would throw any extra light on the construction of the diagrams. Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 6 Example 6: Student work I gathered the data, found the percentages and used the percentages as A in the usual 15A to find the radii needed to construct the diagram. The data is here: formula r = Ï€ Numbers gaining top three grades in Mathematical Studies As percentage of those taking Studies Radius required for each Taking Total Grade 7 Grade 6 Grade 5 Studies in year % grade 7 % grade 6 % grade 5 R7 R6 R5 1995 7 10 4 24 25 29.16667 41.66667 16.66667 11.80 14.10 8.92 1996 2 9 3 15 19 13.33333 60.00000 20.00000 7.98 16.93 9.77 1997 1 4 2 10 18 10.00000 40.00000 20.00000 6.91 13.82 9.77 1998 5 12 11 31 37 16.12903 38.70968 35.48387 8.78 13.60 13.02 1999 2 6 7 17 26 11.76471 35.29412 41.17647 7.49 12.98 14.02 2000 3 4 7 20 30 15.00000 20.00000 35.00000 8.46 9.77 12.93 2001 3 8 8 31 36 9.67742 25.80645 25.80645 6.80 11.10 11.10 2002 1 8 4 21 28 4.76190 38.09524 19.04762 4.77 13.49 9.54 2003 0 1 8 15 23 0.00000 6.66667 53.33333 0.00 5.64 15.96 2004 3 9 7 29 34 10.34483 31.03448 24.13793 7.03 12.17 10.74 2005 1 11 9 28 29 3.57143 39.28571 32.14286 4.13 13.70 12.39 2006 2 4 5 16 21 12.50000 25.00000 31.25000 7.73 10.93 12.22 2007 1 8 3 13 22 7.69231 61.53846 23.07692 6.06 17.14 10.50 2008 0 3 17 29 54 0.00000 10.34483 58.62069 0.00 7.03 16.73 2009 0 5 5 23 48 0.00000 21.73913 21.73913 0.00 10.19 10.19 And the diagram came out like this: Figure 6 Polar area diagram to show percentages of students taking Mathematical Studies who gained grades above 4 Red represents the number of students gaining grade 7. Blue represents the number of students gaining grade 6. Green represents the number of students gaining grade 5. The purple areas represent coinciding numbers of students gaining grade 5 and 6. Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 7 Example 6: Student work One thing which I learnt from this exercise is that you have to be very careful about your scale and think through every move before you start if you don’t want to fall off the edge of the paper! It is a far more tense experience drawing a diagram by hand because you know that one slip will make the whole diagram flawed. A computer slip can be corrected before you print out the result. My admiration for Florence Nightingale’s draftsmanship was heightened by doing this. The other thing which drawing by hand brought out was that, if you draw the arcs in in the appropriate colours, the colouring of the sectors sorts itself out. You colour from the arc inwards until you come to another arc or the centre. The only problem came when two arcs of different colours came in exactly the same place. I got around this problem by colouring these areas in a totally different colour and saying so at the side. At this point in my research someone suggested some more possible websites to me, and following these up I found a copy of Nightingale’s second diagram which was clear enough for me to read her notes, and a copy of the original data she used. The first of these was in a letter by Henry Woodbury suggesting that Nightingale got her calculations wrong and the radii represented the statistics rather than the area.7 The letter had a comment posted by Ian Short which led me to an article by him8 giving the data for the second diagram and explaining how it was created. The very clear reproduction of Nightingale’s second diagram in Woodbury’s letter7 shows that Miss Nightingale wrote beside it: â€Å"The areas of the blue, red and black wedges are each measured from the centre as the common vertex†. This makes it quite clear that the colours are overlapped and so solves my first problem. She also wrote â€Å"In October 1854 & April 1855 the black area coincides with the red†. She coloured the first of these in red and the second in black, but just commented on it beside the diagram to make it clear. The article by Short8 was a joy to read, although I could only work out the mathematical equations, which were written out in a way which is strange to me ( for example â€Å"$$ ext{Area of sector B} = frac{pi r_B^2}{3}=3$$†8 ) because I already knew what they were (The example had a sector B in a diagram which I could see had 1 2Ï€ 2 Ï€ 2 = = areaB rB rB ). The two things I found exciting from this article were the 2 3 3 table of data which Nightingale used to create the second diagram, and an explanation of what rates of mortality she used. She described these as follows; â€Å"The ratios of deaths and admissions to Force per 1000 per annum are calculated from the monthly ratios given in Dr. Smith’s Table B†4 and I had not been able to understand the meaning of this from the other articles. (Brasseur adds that â€Å"Dr. Smith was the late director-general of the army.†4). Using Short’s article I was able to work out what it meant. I will use an example of data taken from the table in Short’s article, which is in turn taken from â€Å"A contribution to the sanitary history of the British army during the late war with Russia† by Florence Nightingale of 18598. In February 1855 the average size of the army was 30919. Of these 2120 died of ‘zymotic diseases’, 42 died of ‘wounds & injuries’ and 361 died of ‘all other causes’. This gives a total of 2120 + 42 + 361 = deaths. 2523 2523 Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 8 Example 6: Student work 2523 81.6003 men died per 1000 men in the army in Ãâ€"1000 = 30919 that month. If the size of the army had stayed at 30919, with no more men being shipped in or out, and the death rate had continued at 81.6 deaths per 1000 men per month over 12 months, the number of deaths per annum would have been 81.6003 Ãâ€"12 = 979.2 per 1000 men in the army. In other words 979.2 deaths per 1000 per annum. out of 30919 means that This understanding of the units used allowed me to finally understand why O’Connor says of the death rate in January 1855, â€Å"if this rate had continued, and troops had not been replaced frequently, then disease alone would have killed the entire British army in the Crimea.†5 The number of deaths due to disease in January 1855 was 2761 and the 2761 average size of the army was 32393. This gives a rate of 1022.8 Ãâ€"1000 Ãâ€"12 = 32393 deaths from disease per 1000 per annum. Another way of looking at it is that if 2761 had dies each month from disease, 2761Ãâ€"12 = 33132 would have died in 12 months, but there were only 32393 in the army! As an aside, I noticed that O’Connor quoted the mortality rate for January 1855 as â€Å"1,023 per 10,000 being from zymotic diseases†5. Another example that we should not trust everything we see in print. Having sorted this out I was ready to attempt my recreation of figure 1. I decided to do the right hand rose only, covering April 1854 to March 1855. The following table shows the data taken from Short’s article in blue and my calculations in black: Average Wounds size of Zymotic & Z/S*1000*12 Radius W/S*1000*12 Radius O/S*1000*12 Radius (Az) (Aw) (Ao) for army diseases injuries Other for for Month (S) (Z) (W) (O) (1 d.p.) Zymtotic (1 d.p.) Wounds (1 d.p.) Other Apr-54 8571 1 0 5 1.4 2.3 0.0 0.0 7.0 5.2 May-54 23333 12 0 9 6.2 4.9 0.0 0.0 4.6 4.2 Jun-54 28333 11 0 6 4.7 4.2 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.1 Jul-54 28722 359 0 23 150.0 23.9 0.0 0.0 9.6 6.1 Aug-54 30246 828 1 30 328.5 35.4 0.4 1.2 11.9 6.7 Sep-54 30290 788 81 70 312.2 34.5 32.1 11.1 27.7 10.3 Oct-54 30643 503 132 128 197.0 27.4 51.7 14.1 50.1 13.8 Nov-54 29736 844 287 106 340.6 36.1 115.8 21.0 42.8 12.8 Dec-54 32779 1725 114 131 631.5 49.1 41.7 12.6 48.0 13.5 Jan-55 32393 2761 83 324 1022.8 62.5 30.7 10.8 120.0 21.4 Feb-55 30919 2120 42 361 822.8 56.1 16.3 7.9 140.1 23.1 Mar-55 30107 1205 32 172 480.3 42.8 12.8 7.0 68.6 16.2 Az is the death rate per 1000 per annum from disease, Aw is the death rate per 1000 per annum from wounds and Ao is the death rate per 1000 per annum from other causes. For 2Ï€ Ï€ this diagram there are 12 divisions so each sector has an angle of = and an area of 12 6 12A 1Ï€ 2 Ï€ 2 . r = r . So for each radius r = Ï€ 26 12 Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 9 Example 6: Student work I will show my final polar area diagram side by side with Nightingale’s original version: Figure 7. Nightingale’s original â€Å"Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the east† and my recreation. I have to admit that I felt rather proud once I had done this! However, looking at the September 1854 wedge I realised that the two diagrams didn’t correspond. In Nightingale’s original diagram I can see that there are more deaths from other causes than from wounds. In my version there are fewer deaths from other causes than from wounds. All other versions of the original in other articles I looked at ( Gill and Gill3, Brasseur4, O’Connor5, Woodbury7, Riddle10, Small11, Lienhard6) are as the original, but the table in Short definitely shows fewer deaths from other causes than from wounds8. Conclusion I started out to try to lean how to recreate the polar area diagram which Florence Nightingale made to communicate to other people just how bad the situation was in army hospitals. This diagram shouts a need for reform. Look at it. The blue represents deaths which could be avoided with a bit of organisation and care. The red represents deaths due to the actual battles. Florence Nightingale had copies of her report containing her diagrams published at her own expense and sent them to doctors, army officers, members of parliament and the Queen. Following her persistent lobbying a commission was set up to improve military barracks and hospitals, sanitary codes were established and procedures were put in place for more organised collection of medical statistics4. It is a very shocking picture with a huge snowball of social change behind it. It has been an exciting adventure to drill down to a real understanding of its construction. Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 10 Example 6: Student work However, the biggest lesson I have learnt from this research is that you can’t trust what you read. As I have argued in the main text, I am moderately sure that Brasseur thought the colours of the second diagram did not overlap4, I think O’Connor got his death rates wrong for January 18555, and I think Short may have transcribed the data incorrectly for September 18548. According to Brasseur, Florence Nightingale cross checked her data and was systematic about addressing objections to her analysis4. Everyone can make mistakes, and errors can propagate if we just quote what someone else says without looking for corroboration. I have been left with a desire to find out more about this tenacious woman who wouldn’t let society mould her into a genteel wife. Also, if I ever get the chance, I would like to get a look at one of the 2000 copies of â€Å"Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Effiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army. Founded Chiefly on th e Experience of the Late War† which Florence Nightingale had published in 1858, to see the actual table of data and check the numbers for September 1854. Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material 11 Example 6: Student work References/Bibliography 1.Duthie, Eric ed. The Children’s Book of Famous Lives.Odhams Press Ltd, London 1957 2. Du Garde Peach, L. Florence Nightingale. Wills & Hepworth Ltd, Loughborough, 1959 3. Gill, Christopher J. and Gill, Gillian C. Nightingale in Scutari: Her Legacy Reexamined Center for Internatinal Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, viewed 26th July 2009 4. Brasseur, Lee, Florence Nightingale’s Visual Rhetoric in the Rose Diagrams. Technical Communication Quarterly, 14(2), 161-182, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 2005, viewed 26th July 2009 5. O’Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F., Florence Nightingale. viewed 26 July 2009 6. Lienhard, John H., Nightingale’s Graph, The Engines of Our Ingenuity. 2002 viewed 26th July 2009 7. Woodbury, Henry, Nightingale’s Rose. American Physical SocietyLaunches Dynamic Diagrams Redesign of Physical Review Letters, January 9, 2008, 4:05 pm, filed under Information Design, Visual Explanation View ed 30 July 2009 8. Short, Ian, Mathematics of the Coxcombs. November 5th, 2008 viewed 30th July 2009 9. Lewi, Paul J. Florence Nightingale and Polar Area Diagrams, Speaking of Graphics. 2006 < www.datascope.be/sog/SOG-Chapter5.pdf> viewed 26th July 2009 10. Riddle, Larry, Polar-Area Diagram. 2006 , viewed 26th July 2009 11. Small, Hugh, Florence Nightingale’s statistical diagrams. Presentation to Research Conference organized by the Florence Nightingale Museum St. Thomas’s Hospital, 18th March 1998 viewed 26th July 2009 Mathematics SL and HL teacher support material

Definition Essay Essay

We all must have heard of the word â€Å"Dictator† as a political term. Some of us –excluding myself- even watched â€Å"the dictator† comedy movie which was released in 2012. Personally, I doubt a comedy Hollywood movie would convey the right definition of a political term, so I looked it up. It turns out that this word actually has a common definition, a history, and a modern version that you will know more about in this essay. The common definition of a dictator is a ruler who doesn’t rule by democracy. While democracy is a political term that describes a government that is decided by the people. In other words, the supreme power of the country is in the citizen’s hands in a direct or indirect way. Dictatorism is the exact opposite. A dictator ruler has absolute power, control, and authority of a country and often rules in a selfish, brutal way putting his personal benefit and interest first. The word was originated in ancient Rome to rule the republic in times of emergencies. However, it didn’t have the negative meaning as it does today, Rather, a Roman dictator was a person given absolute power (unlike the normal ancient Roman way of dividing the ruling between a board of consuls) for a limited and specific time period in order to handle emergency situations. When his time period ends, he is supposed to step down and give the power back to the board of consuls and receive punishment for any wrongs he did during that period. In the modern version of a dictator, it is often associated with oppression and brutality. Also, and as a result, it is used as a term of abuse or an insult in political debates towards opponents. Many dictators are not only narcissists but also vain and full of ego. Some of them actually go to the extent of creating honorees and titles for themselves. Also, lots of them are crazy power maniacs and control freaks. Apparently, a dictator isn’t only a political ruler who rules by anything  but democracy, an ancient Roman leader in emergencies, or a power maniac who makes false honor titles for himself, but also, anyone who has much arrogance and likes to boss people around can be called a dictator. So, always remember, dictators aren’t very lovable freaks, so try your best not to act as one, both in political and social life manners.

Marriage and Divorce Workshop Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marriage and Divorce Workshop - Assignment Example The couple also has to connect on an intelligence level. If the couple’s intelligence levels are too different, then they connect less, and this could lead to conflict and divorce. The couple also needs to be at the same level of maturity, which allows them to connect on an emotional level. Emotional congruence involves the feelings that the couple has in the relationship. If one of them is not happy, then the other is not happy. It is only when they are on a similar maturity level that they can decipher each other’s emotions correctly. The couple’s hearts also have to connect, i.e. love and trust. Lack of this connection is another major cause of divorce. Sexual connection is also very important in marriage since varying sex drives can lead to misunderstandings and conflict. Finally, biological connections also affect the strength of the relationship, for example, touch and taste. Couples who have a lasting relationship have a strong biological connection; for e xample, when they are close to each other, they have a good feeling. Patterns of Relationships There are four patterns in a relationship, the first of which is a dependent-dependent relationship. In this relationship, neither of the individuals that make the couple makes the final decisions since their decision is collaborative. The couple is usually afraid to make these decisions leading to conflict, which, in turn, leads to the root boat crashing. This sort of relationship happens when two people form a relationship because neither can stay alone. The individuals feel as if they cannot rely on themselves. This sort of relationship could result in a feeling of being imprisoned by the neediness. While this relationship can be healthy, it is grounded in desperation. Dependent-independent relationships involve the dependence of one individual on another in the relationship. In this relationship pattern, only one of them will grow, with the dependent person also hoping to grow. This is the traditional form of a relationship where the wife is dependent on an independent husband. This reduces conflict and ensures that the boat is relatively steady. Independent-independent relationships involve a couple who depend on themselves. This relationship can be considered as a fair relationship since both individuals can be successful and wealthy within the relationship; these relationships do not last for very long. The boat, in this case, will rock and may sink at some point. Interdependent-interdependent relationships involve a couple who both have their own opinions. These relationships experience a lot of conflicts because the individuals in the relationship have many different opinions, which will see the boat rock. In this relationship, the individuals, mutually depend on the other, and it differs from dependent relationships where some individuals are dependent while some are not.  

FORCES IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

FORCES IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS - Case Study Example Religion and language are also important cultural factors that influence international business. Natural resources forces explain the significance of natural geography, topography, natural endowments, climate and sustainability of energy resources use on international business. The political system in the country reflects the will of the country in determining its course of economic growth. Political stability in the country is essential for long term prospects of business. Many countries now are more open to privatization of business. A country's economic health will determine demand for goods and services and availability of infrastructure and other resources for doing business. Maturity of legal system in a country will determine the risk of doing business in the country and is essential for fair transactions. The country's financial position in terms of balance of payments, exchange rate, inflation etc will help multinational companies to draw up strategies on investment, managem ent of finances etc. Availability of labour and labor market trends will be important in determining setting up operations in a country. The Case of Coca Cola operations in India indicates how these seven forces influenced the company in its operations and how it reacted. The company had to face ethical dilemma of operating its plant in remote locations and face accusations of making profits at the cost of depriving locals of natural resource. Socio-Cultural forces Culture affects all business functions. Hofstede's cultural dimension model will be a useful starting parting to understand how culture influences business ((Hofstede, 2001).The power distance factor could indicate how bureaucracy operates in the country. If it is high it will mean a highly centralized decision making structure and very little delegation of powers to local authorities. This knowledge will help a company in doing negotiations. Very often this also defines the relationship between consumer and seller. This will also have an important bearing on organizational design. For example an organisation which tries to bring in its organizational value of empowered decentralized decision making to its employees from a cultural background of high power distance, will face difficulties in implementation (Meade 2005, p 95). Uncertainty avoidance may influence attitudes to entrepreneurship in society and inclination to take risks in financial institutions. Individualism vs. collecti vism dimension will indicate the level of influence of unions and labors attitude to collective bargaining. This will also determine the predominance of task or relationship in interpersonal management. Religion has a strong influence on commerce. Religion is responsible for many beliefs and attitude affecting behaviour, which is brought into business and organizations by people (Ball et al 2008). Attitude to work, accumulation of material wealth

History of Telephone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Telephone - Essay Example Bell developed new and original ideas, but did so by building on older ideas and development (Farley). Transmission of electricity over wires by Stephen Gray in 1729, first Battery produced by Alessandro Volta in 1800, Michael Faraday's experiments with electromagnetism in 1821, Professor Henry's transmission of the first practical electric signal and the invention of the electromagnet in 1830 were the major developments, which paved the way for the invention of the first working telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1837, and the completion of the first non-working telephone in 1861 by Johann Phillip Reis. Successful experiments with a clock spring reed in transmitting actual sound over a pair of wires, ultimately led to the birth of the telephone on March 10, 1876, with the famous first sentence to be transmitted accidentally: "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you". With other inventors like Elisha Gray closely on his heels, Bell received his patent No. 174,465 for his epoch making invention. Since his invention was unprecedented, Bell was obliged to call it as "an improvement in telegraphy". Obviously, it was the telegraph and its wired network, which was most responsible for the development and success of the telephone. Impact of the Telephone on the social elements: Even after being baptized by the patent office and given a royal reception at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, Bell, instead of being applauded was pelted with a hailstorm of ridicule. While men of trade and commerce preferred to call it a scientific toy,. The newspapers went to the extent of describing it as 'the latest American humbug' (the London times), Salem Witchcraft , and something associated with the powers of darkness (The Providence press).The very idea of speaking to a metal piece seemed too bizarre and freakish. Since no one could understand how it worked, people saw this performance as a loss of dignity. Public Officials were slow to adopt it, as they were accustomed to use of written documents, and so was the banking community. It was only after a series of demonstrations and lectures arranged by Bell, as well as an account of a documented 3 hour demonstration, published in The Boston Advertiser (October 19, 1876), that people started taking it seriously. They r ealized, after several years of turmoil, that the telephone offered a hitherto unknown advantage of a 'Human Touch' to the communication. One could converse, respond to tones of voice and moods, discuss, persuade, enquire, argue and even reach agreements in a few minutes, in a personal way. It enabled members of the family to travel and even emigrate with increased security. It enabled the government to handle emergencies, like war, fires, accidents storms etc. Medical emergencies could be attended to much more efficiently. As it was having several advantages over telegraph, the businesses were in a position to handle all the issues in a more personalized way, and much faster. The Telephone in people's homes: Reasons for the delayed entry: The real popularity of the telephone in the home segment had to wait for more than 20 years after the invention of the

Eliade Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Eliade - Assignment Example This hierophany can be witnessed in the Jesus Christ himself who is a personification of God himself. According to him the sacred only reveals himself to the reality of holy and not that of natural reality. Eliade clearly distinguishes between an objects physical attributes and sacred attributes. He states that the sacred nature of objects is not to be counted as a physical attribute but rather a sacred attribute which he pronounces to be ganz andere. He tells about the sacred as something which is developing world order and is religious. He tells about nature as something which is conforming to the modes of sacredness. He differentiates between sacred and profane on the basis of the followers of both the existence. Individuals who believe in profane rely on natural realities rather than on sacredness and power is perceived by them as something which is eternal. In other words these followers are deviating from the role of existence in this world. Eliade describes the primitive race to be belonging to this world with natural realities and who deny their moral rights. These followers do not have a moral right to existence in this world as put by Eliade. He further concludes that profane and sacred are two different modes of existence in this world. 3. Mircea Eliade calls humankind â€Å"homo religious.† By homo religious Eliade is trying to tell that people in this world who follow this form believe in one religion and one god irrespective of their beliefs in profane or sacred. This is the very reason that Eliade distinguishes between the two forms of existence i.e. profane and sacred. 4. (a.) Desacralized cosmos† is used by the author to tell about the myth of the end of this world and existence. It is believed by him that this end would be marked by the hatred for profane and the eternal return of sacred to this world. (b.) â€Å"homogeneity of space† the author uses this term to signify

Art Class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art Class - Essay Example American art tend to be more inclined towards presenting self-determination, achievement and liberation of the colonies. However, American art was always overshadowed by the European art and was popular at that time contrary to popular belief. Consequently, Romanticism focused more on emotions, paint textures, and highlights to truly capture the heart of action and emotion. American art is more modern compared to the Renaissance art and European art. The American colonial period consisted of portraits as colonists wanted to establish their identity in the new world. Undoubtedly, this picture is not achromatic as it uses very light colors. From my perspective, it seems as if it is American art since it is very cosmopolitan. There are countless ways of describing a work of art and great depths of one’s expressions and mines of creativity In this particular image, the artist clearly has been extremely creative from every angle and touch. This graphic is a great image as it depicts a typical hand brush that is utilized for cleaning purposes. The brush itself is painted in a very elegant manner with amazing finish. Every bristle is clear and gives the feeling of cleanliness to the audience. Furthermore, the bristles variation in color is a clear depiction of a unique style that the artist has embraced. From my perspective, it seems that the bristles are made using very thin rods of sheets that are strong and durable. The most interesting aspect about this image is the fact that the bristles are very clear. The dustbin in this image is blue and resembles the one that is used for regular housecleaning purposes. The background colors are very solid and in essence truly bring the hue of light and dark c olors. The assimilation of colors is truly the embodiment of modern day art with clear pixels and each color dot being unique. Truly, the brushing was conducted in an elusive manner which

Humanitarianism and Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Humanitarianism and Human Rights - Essay Example Human rights occur and persist as a consequence of agendas that have been developed and implemented by international development banks and agencies concerned. This is according to Ellen Messer’s discussions on human rights and humanitarian. Anthropologists have looked into and have been compliant with human rights standards, and they have a stand for moral values by criticizing violations and abuses. They have also helped in channeling those who are affected by human rights abuses and how they can protest violations and protections directly. Messer suggests that Africans need to redefine human rights; they need to know the definition of human rights according to the International legal spheres definition since they seem to be suffering at the hands of other people not knowing what their rights are. This is because traditional rights and responsibilities have been wasted away in the urban contexts, and they are not followed anymore. Women and the children are the ones seen to suffer the most. They are taken into slavery and forced to work on large scale farms. In Africa also they have debates whether rights to development and freedom from hunger take priority over the emphasis on individual political-economic freedom. Africans are slaves of power and authority; they do not have rights to air their views on politics that go on. Their focus is how they are going to free themselves from hunger, and that’s why they are turned to be slaves since they have no option when it comes to food.

Marketing and consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing and consumption - Essay Example 2012). This study will extensively expound on the marketing event that took place on September 10th 2013 by Apple Inc where it launched the lower-cost iPhone 5C which is ‘The most colorful iPhone Yet’ and the iPhone 5S which is dubbed as ‘The Most Forward-Thinking Smartphone in the World’ (CBCnews 2013). Apple Inc is one of the most famous information technology companies, and it is a multinational corporation whose headquarters are based in America, California. Apple Inc is a world renowned for its high-quality products, and it is involved in the sale, development and design of personal computers, computer software and consumer electronics. Apple’s popular hardware products include the iPod music player, the iPad tablet computer, the Mac computers and the iPhone Smartphone (Chazin 2013). September 10th 2013 was a very special day for the Apple Inc company since it was launching two phones that have never been seen in the world ever. iPhone 5C is a lo wer-cost iPhone since Apple has been known to produce very expensive products due to its market niche as well as a good reputation that has lasted many years since the creation of the company in 1976. Thus, its products have been known to be very expensive as compared to similar products that try to rival Apple’s products (Apple 2013). Not only is the iPhone 5C lower in cost but also the most colorful iPhone to be manufactured in the world. ... It is the first Smartphone with 64-bit technology that provides blazing-fast performance, especially when editing photos, launching apps or when playing graphic-intensive games. The iPhone 5s delivers desktop class architecture on the palm of the customer’s hand (iPhone(a) 2013). My selection is relevant to marketing since Apple Inc is a world-renowned company and, therefore, any marketing launch that it organizes has to be covered by all the media in the world due to its attraction of many customers. The chosen marketing event for this study is an excellent example of marketing since there are various lessons that can be learnt from the event. It is paramount to note that Apple had already conducted a marketing awareness program that it will be launching the two phones and there was a humongous response worldwide from many people who wanted to purchase the iPhones firsthand (AppleEvents 2013). The marketing event had attracted very prominent people from all corners of the wor ld since they wanted to know what other new-product Apple had created. It is worth noting that Apple Inc has a long history with its co-founder, the late Steve Jobs and therefore, after his demise, many people thought that the company would not survive in business for long. Therefore, this marketing event was an attraction since people wanted to get a grip of the two new products (TheGuardian 2013). The marketing event was conducted in a very organized and colorful manner that was valuable to any person with a passion for marketing since there were numerous concepts that could be learnt. From the invitation cards to the colorful event, all aspects had what an excellent marketing event should endeavor to practice (Apple 2013). The

Unifying Effect Essay Example for Free

Unifying Effect Essay Before the advent of the nineteenth century, Argentina, like the rest of the Latin American region, had been under the rule of Spain. As such, its people had no clear cultural identification that would clearly pronounce their difference from their long-term colonizers (Chasteen and Wood 106). As a result of the colonization, many Europeans made permanent settlements in different areas in Buenos Aires and the rest of the country. One of the countrys most well known foreign-dominated communities is a settlement near the Riachuelo River, known as La Boca, of predominantly Italian residents1. When Argentina gained independence in 1816, social conflicts arising from racial and cultural differences were aplenty. La Bocas neighborhood exhibited this kind of struggle. Conflict in the community existed between the middle-class Italians and the underclass mestizo tenants of houses owned by the immigrants2. The Europeans were protective of their cultural identity and viewed the influx of a large underclass a threat to their heritage. When football became a popular culture in the country in the early twentieth century, the community gave rise to one of its own, the Club Atletico Boca Juniors3. This paper will explore how Club Atletico Boca Juniors succeeded in promoting unity and cultural identity within a divided community during Argentinas search for a unifying, national identity that would eliminate social conflicts before the 1930s economic depression. 1. Emanuela Guano, A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space Culture Vol. 6 2003): 356. 2. Ibid. 357 3. Vic Duke and Liz Crolley, Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 97 2 La Boca and the Class Struggle Within La Boca, one of the barrios or neighborhood in Buenos Aires, the capital city of Argentina, is celebrated for its strong Italian heritage particularly the immigrants passion for arts, work ethics, and family traditions and values4. When you hear of these characteristics describing Italians, what comes to mind is a romanticized vision of a quaint neighborhood with smiling people and the smell of food permeating the air. One wouldnt imagine an ugly part of the picture. Indeed, when you walk through La Boca, you will see structures three story high and tall sidewalks made to protect the houses from the Riachuelo River floods. The smell of pastry and bread interspersed with the smell of sewage from the river5. What a newcomer wouldnt know is how the middle-class Italian-Argentine resented the presence of a large group of mestizos in the area, who were poor and often from the rural areas and other countries, seeking better fortune in Buenos Aires, which was then a city with booming trade6. For the large part, the immigrants distrusted these newcomers, owing to their darker coloring and uncultured ways. The immigrants believed that they pose a threat to La Bocas Italian identity. Often, the migrants were the subjects of unrelenting discrimination. The boquenses, as these middle-class Italians were called, created ways to define their heritage to draw the line among those who belong and those who do not. One example of which is the boquenses characterization of the Italian-Argentine residents as the hardworking, honest lot, while the newcomers were delegated as being the lawless mestizos (Guano 362). ______________ 4. Emanuela Guano, A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space Culture Vol. 6 (2003): 356. 5. Ibid. 360. 6. J. A. Mangan, The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 21. 3 In the later years, the children of these immigrants strove for assimilation in the society. Instead of just being immigrants, they wanted to become full Argentines. Although the electoral process was modified to grant them Argentine status, they were still basically outsiders7. This is one of the struggles that the communitys soccer club was able to overcome. The Advent of Soccer and the Search for a National Identity in Argentina To understand better the social conflict in La Boca, it is important to understand how this kind of class division existed in Buenos Aires and all throughout Argentina; and how the nation as a whole found a common anchor not through any political means, but by what started to be a European form of entertainment. The nineteenth century Latin America was a region of class conflict, diplomatic turmoil, capitalist exploitation, social inequality and political paranoia (Mangan 35). Great Britain was the primary force in Latin America, taking the place of Spain and Portugal but in a different manner. The Britons were no colonizers to these races. Instead, it forged a strong economic relationship with the region. Argentina at that time had a booming enterprise comparable to those of Australia, Canada and the United States (Mangan 12). As a result of Britain and Argentinas economic ties, some Englishmen settled in the country. To keep their ties to their motherland, the English started playing their own sports with no other major purpose than for their own enjoyment. Generally, the Britons kept to themselves. It was only during sports activities that they were in close cultural and social contact ______________ 7. Matthew B. Karush, National Identity in the Sports Pages: Football and the Mass Media in 1920s. Academy of American Franciscan History Vol. 60 (2003): 12. 4 with the Argentines. The establishment of English sports in Argentina, in the long run, had significant cultural outcome (Mangan 13). Argentine soccer had its beginnings in 1867 when the Buenos Aires Football Club was established by Thomas and James Hogg whose father was from Yorkshire, England. The association had its first game in June 20 of the same year, with all the players being British. The Argentine Football Club was founded in 1893, with Alexander Watson Hutton being its first president, later dubbed as the Father of Argentine Soccer (Mangan 26). Boca Junior was formed in 1905 and has held up until the present its base in the Italian barrio of La Boca alongside the port in Buenos Aires (Duke and Crolley 97). Of all the sports that were introduced in Argentina, it was football that captured the heart of the masses. It gave them the chance to forget their troubles and create opportunities for pleasure and illusion8. In the early years of the sport, there two kinds of associations. One was the all-English clubs that value sportsmanship and fair play, while the other was comprised of local players who played to win. While the English clubs practiced in schools, the other teams practiced in the streets and on wide stretches of vacant lands. This disparity in their learning is perhaps what created the difference in how they play9. During the 1920s, a new distinctive, urban culture in Buenos Aires emerged. Football and tango transformed into the highest representations of being Argentinidad (Karush 11). Football was seen by the government as the unifying force to create homogeneity among the Argentine masses and the foreign-born working class who, despite their assimilation in the ______________ 8. J. A. Mangan, The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 35. 9. Vic Duke and Liz Crolley, Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 97 5 society, often found themselves not fully belonging. Though football started as a popular culture, it later turned into a stepping-stone for the process of hegemonic nation building10. How Boca Juniors Affected La Boca The national identity images advocated by the new mass culture in the 1920s did not necessarily made Argentina’s population with differing interests turn into a harmonious community11. But at least in La Boca, the Italian immigrants found something in common with the migrant mestizos. Where once there were distinct boundaries established between the classes, that division did not manifest in the sports club. For once, the Boca Juniors association represented the community as a whole. The sport, being of English origin, made Italians and non-Italians both outsiders, thus fostering a common bond between them. More importantly, the club provided the younger immigrants a chance to fully assimilate in the Argentine society, without being differentiated. Boca Juniors was not about the diversity in the community, but rather about the community as a whole. Boca Junior became the center of sporting, political and social aspects of the barrio where it was based. It came to represent the community and helped the children of the immigrant population get integrated into mainstream Argentine society (Duke and Crolley 97). The club after rejecting any other name, chose Boca to express the strong affinity they have with their neighborhood. Boca, literally means, mouth of the river. Juniors, on the other hand, showed that 10. Matthew B. Karush, National Identity in the Sports Pages: Football and the Mass Media in 1920s. Academy of American Franciscan History Vol. 60 (2003): 12. 11. Ibid. 32 6 they consider themselves children of the barrio. In short, the Boca Juniors stand for Children of the La Boca neighborhood, dispelling any cultural classification between the middle class Italian immigrants and the lower class rural folks. But not only was Boca Junior a unifying force for its local community, it also established Argentinas reputation in the world sporting community. The turning point in the countrys recognition as a football great came in the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam when Boca Juniors won a silver12. Before that, Boca Juniors in 1925 made the famous tour of Europe that served as a foundation of Argentinas reputation in the football field. The team had a goal to show that they could play without too much violent contact, and at the same time win. Boca Juniors showed and astonished Europeans with their elegant and fluid movements, total control of the ball, masterful dribbling and the acrobatic, spectacular and artistic movements13. The Argentine football players proved that despite having a reputation of playing to win, it was possible to play and win the game using less physical strength and continuity (Karush 6). 2. Archetti, Eduardo P. In search of national identity: Argentinian football and Europe. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 12 (1995): 205 13. Ibid. Works Cited Archetti, Eduardo P. In search of national identity: Argentinian football and Europe. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 12(1995): 2, 201 219. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09523369508713903 Chasteen, James A. and Wood, John Charles. Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations, Completely Revised and Updated. Latin American Silhouettes (2004): 106-110. Duke, Vic and Crolley, Liz. Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 3, 93 116. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/714001587 Guano, Emanuela. A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space and Culture Vol. 6 (2003): 356-376. 9 November 2007 http://sac. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/6/4/356 Mangan, J. A. The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 3, 9 42. Rodriguez, Maria Graciela. The Place of Women in Argentinian Football. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 22 (2005): 2, 231 245. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09523360500035867

Personal model Essay Example for Free

Personal model Essay Everyday is a different day from yesterday, which is how we should look at our daily experiences. People from all walks of life can always find a place that might mean a lot to them or be caught in a situation wherein it may be hard to move on or forgetting such circumstances will be harder than what we usually do. Such occurrences will lead to trauma, worst, psychological illnesses which will make a single person’s life miserable. Life is not a piece of cake. If we will analyze our lives, we will understand that there is something about life which makes it different and at the same time unexplainable. Everyday, new surprises arise making our lives both exciting and hard but amidst all of these, we always end up with a solution to make our lives better. Some people thinks that once a person went into a psychiatrist or a psychologist, they are insane and not in the right mind but what they do not know is what lies behind every consultation and every courage to seek from treatment. Not all mental illnesses are dangerous. Most of the time, these illnesses seeks for help, understanding and acceptance. There is no definite medication for mental illnesses but treatments and consultation would help to somehow lessen the complication. Psychiatrists and psychologists don’t bite, they help us. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder One of the most known mental illnesses is what we call Posttraumatic Stress Disorder which usually occurs when something really traumatic happens to the victim. Also most of the reason depends on how unforgettable such occurrences were. Defining Crisis and Crisis Intervention Before we come into the real discussion, first of all, we must define what is crisis and what crisis intervention is. In Chapter one of the readings, Crisis is defined as a perception of an event or a situation which the victim was having difficulty to tolerate or to have available resources for coping. Such situations lead to several mental illnesses if not treated right or if it is not given initial coping strategies. Although not all crisis leads to serious psychological problems if given proper medication and good approach to coping, some takes time to recover and needs a lot of consultation and talks. The best medication that a victim might receive is the love, care and understanding of his or her family which will be a great help for him or her to overcome stress and trauma. What causes traumas and stress? Stress and traumas comes from different situation which occurs in our everyday life. Some are unknown to us while others are not accidental. Some situation varies on cultural; or social belief or perception. The role of the internal (personal, intrapsychic) The role of the external (social structures, culture) The role of counselor Counselors are those who try to help the clients. They are not there to judge them or to tell them what to do but they were there to listen to the client and everything he or she wanted to speak of. A counselor is somehow who holds a space in his heart to feel for them and a space in his mind to think what should be done.

Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies

Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies According to the statistics presented by the World Health Organization (WHO), with around 7.4 million deaths (around 13% of the total death) in 2004, cancer is the leading cause of death throughout the world (WHO, 2009). These levels are expected to rise further in future, with an estimated 12 million death in 2030 (WHO, 2009). There are more than 100 different types of cancer (Crosta, n.d.), among them the Lung cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer and the breast cancer are the most common types. Tobacco is the most important risk factor for cancer, with nearly 1.3 million deaths per year just due to lung cancer alone (WHO, 2009). Cancer At the primary level, human body consists of large number building blocks, called the cells. Under normal circumstances, new cells are formed by the body depending on the body requirement, in order to replace the dead cells. But sometimes, under abnormal conditions, there is an exponential (uncontrolled) increase in the formation and growth of new cells. The accumulation of these extra cells forms mass or lumps of tissues, called the tumor (National Cancer Institute, 2010). Most of the cancers, in general form tumors, but there are certain exceptions, like leukemia, that do not form tumors (in leukemia or blood cancer, the cancer cells hinder the normal blood functions due to abnormal cell disintegration in the blood stream (Crosta, n.d.)). The tumors can be of two types; benign tumor and malignant tumor. The benign tumors do not propagate to other sections of the body and have restrained growth (Crosta, n.d.), whereas the malignant tumor cells have the ability to invade into the sur rounding tissues. Also the malignant tumor cells can escape from their initial location and spread to other sections of the body through blood or lymph. Only the malignant tumors are cancerous in nature. Therefore, the cancer has three distinctive properties that distinguish malignant tumors from benign tumors: Uncontrolled growth Invasive nature Metastasis (ability to spread to other sections of the body) These disorders in cells are the result of the interaction between the genetic factors and external agents (which are called carcinogens) (WHO, 2009). The carcinogens can be categorized as (WHO, 2009): Biological carcinogens, like certain bacteria, viruses or parasites. Physical carcinogens, which includes the high energy radiations (ionizing radiations). Chemical carcinogens, these include substances like tobacco smoke, arsenic (water contaminant), aflatoxin (food contaminant), asbestos etc. Another factor essential in the development of cancer is the age. According to the studies conducted by the Cancer Research UK, the risk increase predominantly with increasing age, with nearly 74% of the cases of cancer diagnosed in people aged 60 and above (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Cancer Treatment Principle In case of normal cells there is specific pattern of growth, division and death (orderly destruction of cells is called apoptosis) (Crosta, n.d.). It is known that the cancer is the result of the uncontrolled growth of cells which do not die (Crosta, n.d.), that is, the apoptosis process fails in the cancer cells. The cancer cells thus do not die and rather continue to grow, resulting in the formation of tumors. As the problem in the cancer cells lies in the DNA, therefore a possible treatment of cancer is the destruction of the DNA in cancer cells, leading to a self initiated destruction of the cells. There are various methods used for the treatment of cancer depending upon the type of cancer. The most common types of treatment are (Fayed, 2009): Surgery Chemotherapy Radiation therapy or Radiotherapy Biologic or Targeted Therapy Radiotherapy Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, is one of the most common types of treatments used for cancer. It is the utilization of higher energy radiations like x-rays, gamma rays in order to kill cancer cells, treatment of thyroid disorder and even some blood disorders, in a particular section (effected part) of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). The high energy ionizing radiations can be produced using a number of radioactive substrates like Cobalt (60Co), Radium (228Ra), Iodine (131I), Radon (221Rn), Cesium (137Cs), Phosphorus (32P), Gold (198Au), Iridium (192Ir), and Yttrium (90Y) (Howington, 2006). The cancer cells have the ability to multiply faster than other body cells. The high energy ionizing radiations are more destructive towards the faster growing cells, and thus they damage the cancer cell more than the other body cells (Mason, 2008). These high energy radiations like gamma rays and x-rays; especially damage the DNA inside these cancer cells (or tumor cells) thereby annihilating the ability of the cells to reproduce or grow. Apart from treatment of cancer, radiation therapy is also used to shrink a tumor before being surgically removed (Mason, 2008). Depending upon the method of irradiation, the process of radiation therapy is categorized into two forms (Mason, 2008): External Radiotherapy In this method (more common), the infected part of the body (tumor) is irradiated by high energy x-rays from outside the body. Internal Radiotherapy For this method, a radioactive substance are injected (or taken orally) into the body (close to the tumor) in the form of fluids. These substances, taken up by the cancer cells, radiate the tumor through internal beam radiation (or interstitial radiation) (Mason, 2008). Radiotherapy Planning A careful planning is essentially required for radiation therapy, as over exposure can be critically dangerous to healthy tissues in the body. The ionizing radiations have side effects, therefore once the full dose of radiations is decided; the patient is given these radiations in the form of small doses in a series of therapy sessions (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Each small dose of radiation is called a fraction. The gap between sessions provides the recovery time for the body, which may depend on the type of cancer and patients health condition. The area of the body that is radiated during the treatment is called the radiotherapy field and the section inside the body that experiences the maximum exposure dose is called the target volume (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The doctors decide the marginal area around the tumor that should be radiated to encapsulate any movement of the cancer cells. In order to accurately determine the position of tumor (or target volume), body scans are done. Computed Tomography (CT) scans are done as a planning procedure, this provides vital information regarding the location of the tumor as well as the kind of treatment required by the patient (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The radiotherapy treatment planning process can be divided into 6 major steps . Computer Tomography (CT) Scan The invention of Computer Tomography (CT) scanned is credited to Sir Godfrey Hounsfield in early 1970s, for which he along with Allen Cormack, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979 (Smith, n.d.). A CT scanner, also known as the Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanner uses X-rays to produce cross sectional images (or slices) of the body like a slice in a loaf of bread (FDA, 2010). The word tomography suggests the process of generating a two-dimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram) (Nordqvist, 2009). These cross-sectional slides render an accurate picture of the size and location of the tumor along with the position of major organs in the body (Cancer Research UK, 2009). This would be essentially useful during the radiotherapy process, where these can be used to lower the dose of radiations on the organs. It is known that in case of radiation therapy treatment, the doses are given in fractions over a certain period of time (to prevent major side effects), which may vary from few weeks to months. Thus, before each fraction of radiation dose, computed tomography (CT) scan of the patients is done to determine the exact location of the tumor or cancer cells. So in case the full dose has been divided into 30 fractions, then the patient has to undergo 30 CT scans, each before a fractional therapy. The machine used for the radiation therapy planning is known as the simulator (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The simulator identifies the position of the tumor and marks the position of radiation on the body with the help of light rays. The radiographer uses ink markers on the body before the actual radiotherapy is begun. These linear ink marks are used by the radiographer for positioning the machine for radiotherapy (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Simulators take the pictures (CT scans) in the form of X-rays, which locates the accurate tumor position for the radiographer to carry out the treatment. During a CT scan, it is essential that the person remains completely still so that the measurements are accurate. In order to insure the correct position supports like neck rest, chest board or arm pole are used (Cancer Research UK, 2009). In case of children it is ensured by giving proper sedatives. Sometimes, under critical condition, extra measures are taken in order to prevent essential organs from being radiated during the therapy. These measures include injecting fluids or dyes which mark the position of vital human organs in the CT scan (Cancer Research UK, 2009). These markers may be given orally, through injections or rectally depending upon the requirement. Using this vital information from the CT scans, a treatment plan for radiation therapy is prepared. This plan indicates the position and direction of the radiations during the therapy, so as to minimize the exposure of healthy cells and organs. The scans generated by a CT scanner are in the form of 2 dimensional (2-D) slides, but by the used of digital geometry processing they can be used to generate a 3 dimensional (3-D) images of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). This can be achieved by integrating all the slides (along the same axis) together using a computer system. The CT scan can be understood as a technically advanced format of X-rays machines. The x-rays images are produced by the projection of a broad beam of x-rays on a film after passing through the body (Medindia, 2010). It provides a 2-dimentional projection of the body, where much of the information is lost. In case of CT scan, a thin beam of x-rays is absorbed by the detector after passing though the patients body (Medindia, 2010). Like the x-ray process, the CT scanning is a painless process for the patients but has been known to be accompanied with some side effects. These side effects may vary from the patient to patient depending upon the amount of radiation dose and health of the patient. The detailed discussion on the health effects of CT scanning has been discussed in the later sections of the project. Theory In order to understand the working of a computed tomography (CT) scanner it is essential to understand the properties of ionizing radiations (X-rays) used in the scanning process. The electromagnetic radiations are the arrangement of electric-field and magnetic-field vectors perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave (Resnick et al., 2009). These Electromagnetic radiations have penetrating powers, which are directly dependent on the energy (or frequency) of these radiations. So that radiations with higher frequency have higher penetration powers. Therefore, on the basic the energy, the electromagnetic radiations are categorized as Non-ionizing radiations and Ionizing radiations. Non-Ionizing radiations refer to the electromagnetic radiations which have energy lower than that required for an atomic ionization (MIT, 2001). The non-ionizing radiations include radio waves, micro waves, visible light etc. These radiations have lower penetration powers. Alternatively the Ionizing radiations are the high frequency radiations which have enough energy to knockout an electron from an atom and thus causing ionization (MIT, 2001). The Gamma rays and X-rays are the common type of ionizing radiations. Even the alpha particles and beta particles emitted in a nuclear reaction are ionizing radiations (MIT, 2001). Due to the higher energy they have higher penetration power than the non-ionizing radiations. Principle of CT Scanning The most important section of a Computed Tomography (CT) scanning is the interaction of the ionizing X-ray radiations with the living tissues in the body. When the ionizing radiations (X-rays) interact with the living tissues in the body, they break up atoms and molecules from the living tissues and disrupt chemical reactions within the body (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The intensity of absorption of the x-ray radiations by the body varies depending upon the tissue coming in interaction. Different body tissues have different absorption power, where some are permeable to x-rays others are impermeable (Medindia, 2010). It is due to this difference in the absorption ability of different sections of the body, which results in the generation of a graded pattern in the scans. High density tissues like the bones appear white in the scan while the soft tissues (like brain and kidneys) appear dark. The cavities (like the lungs) are seen as black sections in the scan (Medindia, 2010). Therefore, this gradation in the pattern can be used as method to distinguish different body organs depending upon their absorption capacity. This forms the basic principle behind the working of an X-ray scanning. Radon (1917) was the first to develop the principles of computed tomography (CT) mathematically (Bushberg et al., 2002). According to Radon, with the help of infinite number of projections through an object, it could be possible to produce an image of an unknown object. In case of film imaging (as in conventional X-rays), a two-dimensional (2-D) projection of the body is generated on the film. Due to this, details in the dimension of the body along the direction parallel to the x-ray beam are lost. In order to overcome this drawback (only up to a certain level) projections can be taken along two directions; posteroanterior (PA) projection and lateral projection (Bushberg et al., 2002) (as shown in Figure 4). Increasing the number of scans improves the amount of information but in critical and complex cases where much more details are required. For these critical cases, CT scan is done. The CT scan provides the tomographical image, which is the picture of patients body in the sections or slabs. The thickness of these uniform slabs may vary from 1 millimeter to 10 millimeter (Bushberg et al., 2002), according to the program, depending upon the requirement. Each CT image consists of an array of large number of pixels forming a two dimensional (2-D) image, which corresponds to the same number of three dimensional thin rectangular slabs called the voxel. The voxels are the volume element whereas the pixels are the picture element (Bushberg et al., 2002). Every ray from the X-ray source passes (transmits) through the patient before the transmission measurement is done by the detector. Intensity of the un-attenuated x-ray radiation emitted by the source is Io whereas the intensity of the attenuated radiation after transmitting through the patient is given as It. The intensities Io and It are related by the equation (Bushberg et al., 2002):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It=Ioe-ÃŽ ¼t   Ã‚  Where;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ µ is the total linear attenuation coefficient of the tissue (Smith, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  t is the distance travelled by the radiation in the tissue i.e. the tissue thickness. The coefficient  µ is dependent on the atomic number and electron density of the tissues (Smith, n.d.). Higher the atomic number and electron density of the tissues, higher would be the attenuation coefficient (Smith, n.d.). This form the basic principle of CT scanning, that different tissues have different level of attenuation properties depending upon their atomic number and electron density. For every measurement, the overall attenuation coefficient is calculated using the above equation. During a complete 360o ­ scan, various transmission measurements for the intensity of X-ray photon are done. Using these intensity measurements specific attenuation values are allotted to every voxel (volume element). These attenuation numbers are directly proportional to the linear attenuation coefficient. The average of these attenuation values is called the CT number (Smith, n.d.). These values can be arranged on a linear scale, the units of which are called the Hounsfield units (HU). The scale for modern CT scanners varies from approximately -1,000 to 3,000 HU. The attenuation scale is based on binary system and therefore the exact values range from -1,024 to +3,071, with a total of 4,096 (or 212) attenuation numbers. Here, the lower represent the black section while the higher values represent the white section of the CT image. On this scale the attenuation value of water is zero HU and that of air is -1,000 HU (Smith, n.d.). Both of these values act as the reference points. Construction of a CT scanner CT scanner is a complex machine, but the basic structure is simple. A common CT scanner has been shown in Figure 2. Two most important parts of a CT scanner are the X-ray source and detector. The source and detector are placed in a circular structure, which has a shape similar to a doughnut. This doughnut shaped circular opening is called the gantry (RadiologyInfo, 2009), with an inner (opening) diameter varying from 60 cms to 70 cms. The X-ray source and detector are placed exactly (diagonally) opposite each other, so that the radiations emitted by the source pass through the body and the transmitted radiations are measured by the detector. The x-ray source and detector system in the gantry is motorized to rotate around the patient for measurements in different projection angles. The rational speed of the system is adjusted according to the detectors ability to measure and convert the x-ray beam into electronic signal. Cobalt (60Co) is generally used as the source of x-rays in the CT scanners. The detector used in CT scanner consists of an array of detectors in a slightly curved shape (like a banana). This curved shape is especially useful in fan-shaped beam projects. Two types of detectors are generally utilized in the CT scans; solid state or scintillation detector and Xenon gas detector (Reddinger, 1997). But the solid state detectors with scintillators like Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO4), yttrium, gadolinium ceramics etc are commonly used (Bushberg et al., 2002). The principle of the scintillation detector is that, when it is struck by a x-ray photon, it produces light. This light signal is then transformed to electrical signal with the help of photodiode. The Depending upon their structure, the detectors are categorized into two categories; single detector array and multiple detector array. Another essential part of a CT scanner is the motorized examination table. The table is controlled to move in and out of the gantry during the scanning process. As the position of the x-ray source and detector is fixed therefore the section being scanned is controlled by the movement of the examination table. For a better scan it is necessary that the patient remains completely still. To insure this table is equipped with neck rest, chest board and arm pole (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The detector measures the intensity of the radiation and converts them into electrical signals. These raw signals are analyzed and manipulated by the computer to convert them into images which can be understood by the radiologists and the technicians. Multiple computers are required in a CT scanner. The main computer that controls the operation of the entire system is called the host computer (Imaginis, n.d.). The computers and controls are located in a room adjoining the scanning room. This prevents the technicians and the radiographer from exposure to x-rays. Scanning Procedure in a CT scanner Initially the patient is positioned on the examination (or scanning) table in a flat upright posture (face towards the roof). In order to insure the correct and stationary position, straps and pillows may be used along the body. Once the patient is correctly positioned on the scanning table, the motorized table moves the patient into the circular opening of the CT scanner (FDA, 2010), which the x-ray radiations are projected on the patient from the scanning. For a particular position of the x-ray source and detector, the rays from the source pass through a region called the projection or view. There are two different types of projection geometries that are used in CT scanning; parallel beam geometry and fan beam geometry. In the parallel beam geometry, the rays projected on the patient are parallel to each other whereas in fan beam geometry, the rays diverge from the source in the shape of a fan (Bushberg et al., 2002) as shown in Figure 7. The fan beam projections are the most commonly in used x-ray projections in the CT scanners. The X-ray tube is attached with a collimator which controls the thickness of the fan beam. This thickness (of the fan beam projection) determines the width of the tissue slide in the scanning process. It is through the collimator that the slice thickness is varied between 1mm to 10mm (Smith, n.d.). The x-ray source and detector rotate around the patient (for imaging) in a circular motion such that they always remain exactly (diametrically) opposite to each other (as shown in Figure 7). During the rotation the source keeps emitting x-rays which are attenuated after passing through the patient. For a single projection (or slice), the x-ray source and detector make a complete 360o rotation around the patient. During the rotation the detector takes a large number of snapshots of the absorbed X-ray beam at different projection angles. A single image may involve approximately 800 rays and there can be up to 1,000 different projection angles (Bushberg et al., 2002). Therefore for a single projection (one slice), the detector does nearly 800,000 transmission measurements (Bushberg et al., 2002). The scanning of a single projection generally takes around 1 sec (for axial CT scanners) (FDA, 2010). Once all the transmission measurements (complete 360o) for a projection (or slice) are completed, the motorized table moves along the axis of the gantry so that the next slice of tissues forms the projection view. The process is continued till the complete required section of the body has been scanned. In the traditional CT scanners, the table moved on to the next projection (slice) only when the scanning of the previous was completed. Such conventional type of scanning is called the axial scanning. But in modern CT scanners, called the helical or spiral CT scanners, the rotation of the x-ray source and detector is accompanied with the uniform movement of the examination table, thus producing a helical projection. The helical CT scanning has been shown in Figure 9. These modern helical CT scanners are much faster than the traditional scanners due to continuous scanning process. They have been reported to take nearly half the time for scanning as compared to the traditional CT scanner s. In order to analyze and study the cardiac structure which is under constant motion, even helical CT is ineffective. For such applications a special CT scanner with an exposure time of 50ms and a maximum exposure rate of 17 images per second are used (Smith, n.d.). These scanners, called the cine CT, freeze the cardiac motion due to extremely low exposure time resulting in a sharp image (Smith, n.d.). These scanners use electron beam to generate x-rays, thus are also known as Electron Beam Computed Tomography (EBCT). In the CT scanning process large volume of data and operations are required to be processed, which is achieved with the help of multiple computers. The detector converts the intensity measurements of the attenuated x-rays in to electrical signals. The main computer, called the hub computer processes these signals and converts them into an image. These images can then be analyzed for radiotherapy planning. Result Computed Tomography (CT) has become an invaluable medical tool. It provides detailed 3-D images of various sections of the body like pelvis, soft tissues, lungs brain, blood vessels and bones (Nordqvist, 2009). Generally, CT scanning is the preferred method of diagnosing different types of cancers like liver, lungs and pancreatic cancers (Nordqvist, 2009). The tomographic images produced by the CT scan provide specific location and size of the tumor along with the details of affected tissues in the proximity of the tumor. This is especially advantageous in planning, guiding, and monitoring therapies like radiotherapy (FDA, 2010). CT scanning has various benefits over other traditional diagnostic techniques; some of the benefits are (RadiologyInfo, 2009): It is non-invasive, painless and extremely accurate. A major advantage is the ability to identify and distinguish bones, soft tissues and blood vessels in the same image. It also provides real time images which cannot be done in conventional X-rays. This technique is fast and simple; and is extensively used to locate internal injuries after accidents. It is less sensitive towards patient movement as compared to MRI. CT scanning can be used on patients with medical implants unlike the MRI. For an effective radiation therapy treatment, it is necessary that only the tumor is irradiated while minimum damage occurs to the surrounding health (normal) body tissues (Badcock, 1982). This is achieved with the help of CT imaging technique. In a study by Badcock (1982), 186 patients with various malignancies were studied and it was found that in nearly 39% of the treatment cases CT scanning was valuable in the assessment of the radiationdose calculation (Badcock, 1982). According to his study, CT scanner resulted in an alternation in target dose by more than 5%, (as compared to the traditional methods) in 27% of the patients (Badcock, 1982). The result has been shown in the table below. The mean alternation was 6.5% of the target dose and usually resulted in reduction of dose per fraction by factors upto 35% (Badcock, 1982). Even with these advantages, the adverse affect of the ionizing x-ray radiations cannot be neglected. Various experiments and researches have consolidated the fact that ionizing radiations like x-rays, gamma rays etc have adverse effect on living tissues. Zamanian Hardiman (2005) have explained that when high energy ionizing radiations interact with living tissues they strip-off atoms and molecules from them. This disrupts the chemical reaction within the body and failure in organ functioning (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The adverse effects of ionizing radiations were seen shortly after its discovery in 1890s, with a scientist involved in the study of radioactivity were reported with skin cancer in 1902. But is was not until 1944, that the role of radiations in causing leukemia in human was first documented, mainly in radiologists and physicists (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). In recent years the use of x-rays has extensviely increased in medical field for diagonostic and treatment application. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, X-ray deveices are the largest source of man-made radiation exposure (US_EPA, 2007). According to NCRP Report No. 160 (2006), the average annual effective dose per individual in the US population, from all sources has increase from 1.7mSv in 1980s to 6.2mSv in 2006. This increase is mainly attributed to the striking growth of high dose medical imaging procedures that utilize x-rays and radionuclides (NCRP, 2008). Such man-made devices include X-ray machines, CT scans etc. CT scans, especially result in high dose x-ray exposure, with nealy 100 times the exposure dose as compared to standard x-ray equipments (Coach, 2008). Some of the major risks associated with CT scanning are: It is well documented that ionizing radiaitons like x-rays have the ability to cause cancer on exposure. Therefore, the CT dose in radiotherapy increase the probabilty of cancer in the future. Even though only 4% of the total x-ray examinations are CT scans, they account for more than 20% of the radiation dose to the population by medical x-rays (King Saud University, 2004). In general, the effective dose in a CT scan procedure ranges from 2 mSv to 10mSv, which is nearly equivalent to the amount of radiation that a person receive from the background exposures in three to five years (RadiologyInfo, 2009). A CT scan during preganacy make cause serious illness or even birth defects in the unborn baby (FDA, 2010). Children are more sensitive and vulnerable to x-ray exposures than the adults, therefore their CT scanning should be done only under extremely essential and necessary conditions. Women have higher risk of developing cancer in the lifetime, as compared to men under same levels of exposure (FDA, 2009). In some rare situation of high-dose prolonged radiation exposure, the x-rays can cause adverse effects like skin reddening (erythema), skin tissue injury, hair loss, cataracts etc (FDA, 2010). In a study, Sawyer et al (2009) estimated the effective dose resulting from a cone beam CT scanning for planning of radiation therapy using thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLDs) for organ dose and using International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 60 tissue weighing factor (Sawyer et al., 2009). The results obtained for effective dose from TLD measurements and ICRP 60 weighting factor, for breast, pelvis and head simulation have been shown in the table below. The scanning process results in the exposure of the normal tissues outside the treatment volume (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). It is thus important to analyze the effect that the irradiation caused by the CT scanning process has on the patients body. In a study, Waddington McKenzie (2004) analyzed the propability of developing cancer from the irradiations caused by the extended field portal imaging techniques, the results of which are given in the table below (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). In order to illustrate a real life situation, the calulations in the study were done for an average man with a height of 170 cms and weight of 70 kgs (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). Therefore, these values may change depending upon the height, weight and tumor size of the patient. Discussion Various studies have been done to statistically evaluate the effect of the ionizing radiations on the human health. These risks have severely amplified due to the rapid increase in the number of CT scans for diagnostic applications. CT scans form nearly 5% of all procedures used in diagnostic radiology in the developed countries (Wrixon et al., 2004). In U.S., nearly 70 million CT scans were done in 2007 as compared to just 3 million done in 1980 (Steenhuysen, 2009), this includes more than 4 million children in 2006 (Brenner Hall, 2007). Thus, according to the NCRP Report no. 160, the average radiation dose per person has increased from 3.6 mSv in early 1980s to 6.2 mSv in 2006 (NCRP, 2008). Steenhuysen (2009) has reported that the radiations from CT scans done in 2007 will cause 29,000 cancers and kill nearly 15,000 people in America (Steenhuysen, 2009). These stats explain the level of exposure caused by the CT scans. According to estimates by Amy Berrington de Gonzalez of the National Cancer Institute, Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies According to the statistics presented by the World Health Organization (WHO), with around 7.4 million deaths (around 13% of the total death) in 2004, cancer is the leading cause of death throughout the world (WHO, 2009). These levels are expected to rise further in future, with an estimated 12 million death in 2030 (WHO, 2009). There are more than 100 different types of cancer (Crosta, n.d.), among them the Lung cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer and the breast cancer are the most common types. Tobacco is the most important risk factor for cancer, with nearly 1.3 million deaths per year just due to lung cancer alone (WHO, 2009). Cancer At the primary level, human body consists of large number building blocks, called the cells. Under normal circumstances, new cells are formed by the body depending on the body requirement, in order to replace the dead cells. But sometimes, under abnormal conditions, there is an exponential (uncontrolled) increase in the formation and growth of new cells. The accumulation of these extra cells forms mass or lumps of tissues, called the tumor (National Cancer Institute, 2010). Most of the cancers, in general form tumors, but there are certain exceptions, like leukemia, that do not form tumors (in leukemia or blood cancer, the cancer cells hinder the normal blood functions due to abnormal cell disintegration in the blood stream (Crosta, n.d.)). The tumors can be of two types; benign tumor and malignant tumor. The benign tumors do not propagate to other sections of the body and have restrained growth (Crosta, n.d.), whereas the malignant tumor cells have the ability to invade into the sur rounding tissues. Also the malignant tumor cells can escape from their initial location and spread to other sections of the body through blood or lymph. Only the malignant tumors are cancerous in nature. Therefore, the cancer has three distinctive properties that distinguish malignant tumors from benign tumors: Uncontrolled growth Invasive nature Metastasis (ability to spread to other sections of the body) These disorders in cells are the result of the interaction between the genetic factors and external agents (which are called carcinogens) (WHO, 2009). The carcinogens can be categorized as (WHO, 2009): Biological carcinogens, like certain bacteria, viruses or parasites. Physical carcinogens, which includes the high energy radiations (ionizing radiations). Chemical carcinogens, these include substances like tobacco smoke, arsenic (water contaminant), aflatoxin (food contaminant), asbestos etc. Another factor essential in the development of cancer is the age. According to the studies conducted by the Cancer Research UK, the risk increase predominantly with increasing age, with nearly 74% of the cases of cancer diagnosed in people aged 60 and above (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Cancer Treatment Principle In case of normal cells there is specific pattern of growth, division and death (orderly destruction of cells is called apoptosis) (Crosta, n.d.). It is known that the cancer is the result of the uncontrolled growth of cells which do not die (Crosta, n.d.), that is, the apoptosis process fails in the cancer cells. The cancer cells thus do not die and rather continue to grow, resulting in the formation of tumors. As the problem in the cancer cells lies in the DNA, therefore a possible treatment of cancer is the destruction of the DNA in cancer cells, leading to a self initiated destruction of the cells. There are various methods used for the treatment of cancer depending upon the type of cancer. The most common types of treatment are (Fayed, 2009): Surgery Chemotherapy Radiation therapy or Radiotherapy Biologic or Targeted Therapy Radiotherapy Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, is one of the most common types of treatments used for cancer. It is the utilization of higher energy radiations like x-rays, gamma rays in order to kill cancer cells, treatment of thyroid disorder and even some blood disorders, in a particular section (effected part) of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). The high energy ionizing radiations can be produced using a number of radioactive substrates like Cobalt (60Co), Radium (228Ra), Iodine (131I), Radon (221Rn), Cesium (137Cs), Phosphorus (32P), Gold (198Au), Iridium (192Ir), and Yttrium (90Y) (Howington, 2006). The cancer cells have the ability to multiply faster than other body cells. The high energy ionizing radiations are more destructive towards the faster growing cells, and thus they damage the cancer cell more than the other body cells (Mason, 2008). These high energy radiations like gamma rays and x-rays; especially damage the DNA inside these cancer cells (or tumor cells) thereby annihilating the ability of the cells to reproduce or grow. Apart from treatment of cancer, radiation therapy is also used to shrink a tumor before being surgically removed (Mason, 2008). Depending upon the method of irradiation, the process of radiation therapy is categorized into two forms (Mason, 2008): External Radiotherapy In this method (more common), the infected part of the body (tumor) is irradiated by high energy x-rays from outside the body. Internal Radiotherapy For this method, a radioactive substance are injected (or taken orally) into the body (close to the tumor) in the form of fluids. These substances, taken up by the cancer cells, radiate the tumor through internal beam radiation (or interstitial radiation) (Mason, 2008). Radiotherapy Planning A careful planning is essentially required for radiation therapy, as over exposure can be critically dangerous to healthy tissues in the body. The ionizing radiations have side effects, therefore once the full dose of radiations is decided; the patient is given these radiations in the form of small doses in a series of therapy sessions (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Each small dose of radiation is called a fraction. The gap between sessions provides the recovery time for the body, which may depend on the type of cancer and patients health condition. The area of the body that is radiated during the treatment is called the radiotherapy field and the section inside the body that experiences the maximum exposure dose is called the target volume (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The doctors decide the marginal area around the tumor that should be radiated to encapsulate any movement of the cancer cells. In order to accurately determine the position of tumor (or target volume), body scans are done. Computed Tomography (CT) scans are done as a planning procedure, this provides vital information regarding the location of the tumor as well as the kind of treatment required by the patient (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The radiotherapy treatment planning process can be divided into 6 major steps . Computer Tomography (CT) Scan The invention of Computer Tomography (CT) scanned is credited to Sir Godfrey Hounsfield in early 1970s, for which he along with Allen Cormack, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979 (Smith, n.d.). A CT scanner, also known as the Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanner uses X-rays to produce cross sectional images (or slices) of the body like a slice in a loaf of bread (FDA, 2010). The word tomography suggests the process of generating a two-dimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram) (Nordqvist, 2009). These cross-sectional slides render an accurate picture of the size and location of the tumor along with the position of major organs in the body (Cancer Research UK, 2009). This would be essentially useful during the radiotherapy process, where these can be used to lower the dose of radiations on the organs. It is known that in case of radiation therapy treatment, the doses are given in fractions over a certain period of time (to prevent major side effects), which may vary from few weeks to months. Thus, before each fraction of radiation dose, computed tomography (CT) scan of the patients is done to determine the exact location of the tumor or cancer cells. So in case the full dose has been divided into 30 fractions, then the patient has to undergo 30 CT scans, each before a fractional therapy. The machine used for the radiation therapy planning is known as the simulator (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The simulator identifies the position of the tumor and marks the position of radiation on the body with the help of light rays. The radiographer uses ink markers on the body before the actual radiotherapy is begun. These linear ink marks are used by the radiographer for positioning the machine for radiotherapy (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Simulators take the pictures (CT scans) in the form of X-rays, which locates the accurate tumor position for the radiographer to carry out the treatment. During a CT scan, it is essential that the person remains completely still so that the measurements are accurate. In order to insure the correct position supports like neck rest, chest board or arm pole are used (Cancer Research UK, 2009). In case of children it is ensured by giving proper sedatives. Sometimes, under critical condition, extra measures are taken in order to prevent essential organs from being radiated during the therapy. These measures include injecting fluids or dyes which mark the position of vital human organs in the CT scan (Cancer Research UK, 2009). These markers may be given orally, through injections or rectally depending upon the requirement. Using this vital information from the CT scans, a treatment plan for radiation therapy is prepared. This plan indicates the position and direction of the radiations during the therapy, so as to minimize the exposure of healthy cells and organs. The scans generated by a CT scanner are in the form of 2 dimensional (2-D) slides, but by the used of digital geometry processing they can be used to generate a 3 dimensional (3-D) images of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). This can be achieved by integrating all the slides (along the same axis) together using a computer system. The CT scan can be understood as a technically advanced format of X-rays machines. The x-rays images are produced by the projection of a broad beam of x-rays on a film after passing through the body (Medindia, 2010). It provides a 2-dimentional projection of the body, where much of the information is lost. In case of CT scan, a thin beam of x-rays is absorbed by the detector after passing though the patients body (Medindia, 2010). Like the x-ray process, the CT scanning is a painless process for the patients but has been known to be accompanied with some side effects. These side effects may vary from the patient to patient depending upon the amount of radiation dose and health of the patient. The detailed discussion on the health effects of CT scanning has been discussed in the later sections of the project. Theory In order to understand the working of a computed tomography (CT) scanner it is essential to understand the properties of ionizing radiations (X-rays) used in the scanning process. The electromagnetic radiations are the arrangement of electric-field and magnetic-field vectors perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave (Resnick et al., 2009). These Electromagnetic radiations have penetrating powers, which are directly dependent on the energy (or frequency) of these radiations. So that radiations with higher frequency have higher penetration powers. Therefore, on the basic the energy, the electromagnetic radiations are categorized as Non-ionizing radiations and Ionizing radiations. Non-Ionizing radiations refer to the electromagnetic radiations which have energy lower than that required for an atomic ionization (MIT, 2001). The non-ionizing radiations include radio waves, micro waves, visible light etc. These radiations have lower penetration powers. Alternatively the Ionizing radiations are the high frequency radiations which have enough energy to knockout an electron from an atom and thus causing ionization (MIT, 2001). The Gamma rays and X-rays are the common type of ionizing radiations. Even the alpha particles and beta particles emitted in a nuclear reaction are ionizing radiations (MIT, 2001). Due to the higher energy they have higher penetration power than the non-ionizing radiations. Principle of CT Scanning The most important section of a Computed Tomography (CT) scanning is the interaction of the ionizing X-ray radiations with the living tissues in the body. When the ionizing radiations (X-rays) interact with the living tissues in the body, they break up atoms and molecules from the living tissues and disrupt chemical reactions within the body (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The intensity of absorption of the x-ray radiations by the body varies depending upon the tissue coming in interaction. Different body tissues have different absorption power, where some are permeable to x-rays others are impermeable (Medindia, 2010). It is due to this difference in the absorption ability of different sections of the body, which results in the generation of a graded pattern in the scans. High density tissues like the bones appear white in the scan while the soft tissues (like brain and kidneys) appear dark. The cavities (like the lungs) are seen as black sections in the scan (Medindia, 2010). Therefore, this gradation in the pattern can be used as method to distinguish different body organs depending upon their absorption capacity. This forms the basic principle behind the working of an X-ray scanning. Radon (1917) was the first to develop the principles of computed tomography (CT) mathematically (Bushberg et al., 2002). According to Radon, with the help of infinite number of projections through an object, it could be possible to produce an image of an unknown object. In case of film imaging (as in conventional X-rays), a two-dimensional (2-D) projection of the body is generated on the film. Due to this, details in the dimension of the body along the direction parallel to the x-ray beam are lost. In order to overcome this drawback (only up to a certain level) projections can be taken along two directions; posteroanterior (PA) projection and lateral projection (Bushberg et al., 2002) (as shown in Figure 4). Increasing the number of scans improves the amount of information but in critical and complex cases where much more details are required. For these critical cases, CT scan is done. The CT scan provides the tomographical image, which is the picture of patients body in the sections or slabs. The thickness of these uniform slabs may vary from 1 millimeter to 10 millimeter (Bushberg et al., 2002), according to the program, depending upon the requirement. Each CT image consists of an array of large number of pixels forming a two dimensional (2-D) image, which corresponds to the same number of three dimensional thin rectangular slabs called the voxel. The voxels are the volume element whereas the pixels are the picture element (Bushberg et al., 2002). Every ray from the X-ray source passes (transmits) through the patient before the transmission measurement is done by the detector. Intensity of the un-attenuated x-ray radiation emitted by the source is Io whereas the intensity of the attenuated radiation after transmitting through the patient is given as It. The intensities Io and It are related by the equation (Bushberg et al., 2002):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It=Ioe-ÃŽ ¼t   Ã‚  Where;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ µ is the total linear attenuation coefficient of the tissue (Smith, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  t is the distance travelled by the radiation in the tissue i.e. the tissue thickness. The coefficient  µ is dependent on the atomic number and electron density of the tissues (Smith, n.d.). Higher the atomic number and electron density of the tissues, higher would be the attenuation coefficient (Smith, n.d.). This form the basic principle of CT scanning, that different tissues have different level of attenuation properties depending upon their atomic number and electron density. For every measurement, the overall attenuation coefficient is calculated using the above equation. During a complete 360o ­ scan, various transmission measurements for the intensity of X-ray photon are done. Using these intensity measurements specific attenuation values are allotted to every voxel (volume element). These attenuation numbers are directly proportional to the linear attenuation coefficient. The average of these attenuation values is called the CT number (Smith, n.d.). These values can be arranged on a linear scale, the units of which are called the Hounsfield units (HU). The scale for modern CT scanners varies from approximately -1,000 to 3,000 HU. The attenuation scale is based on binary system and therefore the exact values range from -1,024 to +3,071, with a total of 4,096 (or 212) attenuation numbers. Here, the lower represent the black section while the higher values represent the white section of the CT image. On this scale the attenuation value of water is zero HU and that of air is -1,000 HU (Smith, n.d.). Both of these values act as the reference points. Construction of a CT scanner CT scanner is a complex machine, but the basic structure is simple. A common CT scanner has been shown in Figure 2. Two most important parts of a CT scanner are the X-ray source and detector. The source and detector are placed in a circular structure, which has a shape similar to a doughnut. This doughnut shaped circular opening is called the gantry (RadiologyInfo, 2009), with an inner (opening) diameter varying from 60 cms to 70 cms. The X-ray source and detector are placed exactly (diagonally) opposite each other, so that the radiations emitted by the source pass through the body and the transmitted radiations are measured by the detector. The x-ray source and detector system in the gantry is motorized to rotate around the patient for measurements in different projection angles. The rational speed of the system is adjusted according to the detectors ability to measure and convert the x-ray beam into electronic signal. Cobalt (60Co) is generally used as the source of x-rays in the CT scanners. The detector used in CT scanner consists of an array of detectors in a slightly curved shape (like a banana). This curved shape is especially useful in fan-shaped beam projects. Two types of detectors are generally utilized in the CT scans; solid state or scintillation detector and Xenon gas detector (Reddinger, 1997). But the solid state detectors with scintillators like Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO4), yttrium, gadolinium ceramics etc are commonly used (Bushberg et al., 2002). The principle of the scintillation detector is that, when it is struck by a x-ray photon, it produces light. This light signal is then transformed to electrical signal with the help of photodiode. The Depending upon their structure, the detectors are categorized into two categories; single detector array and multiple detector array. Another essential part of a CT scanner is the motorized examination table. The table is controlled to move in and out of the gantry during the scanning process. As the position of the x-ray source and detector is fixed therefore the section being scanned is controlled by the movement of the examination table. For a better scan it is necessary that the patient remains completely still. To insure this table is equipped with neck rest, chest board and arm pole (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The detector measures the intensity of the radiation and converts them into electrical signals. These raw signals are analyzed and manipulated by the computer to convert them into images which can be understood by the radiologists and the technicians. Multiple computers are required in a CT scanner. The main computer that controls the operation of the entire system is called the host computer (Imaginis, n.d.). The computers and controls are located in a room adjoining the scanning room. This prevents the technicians and the radiographer from exposure to x-rays. Scanning Procedure in a CT scanner Initially the patient is positioned on the examination (or scanning) table in a flat upright posture (face towards the roof). In order to insure the correct and stationary position, straps and pillows may be used along the body. Once the patient is correctly positioned on the scanning table, the motorized table moves the patient into the circular opening of the CT scanner (FDA, 2010), which the x-ray radiations are projected on the patient from the scanning. For a particular position of the x-ray source and detector, the rays from the source pass through a region called the projection or view. There are two different types of projection geometries that are used in CT scanning; parallel beam geometry and fan beam geometry. In the parallel beam geometry, the rays projected on the patient are parallel to each other whereas in fan beam geometry, the rays diverge from the source in the shape of a fan (Bushberg et al., 2002) as shown in Figure 7. The fan beam projections are the most commonly in used x-ray projections in the CT scanners. The X-ray tube is attached with a collimator which controls the thickness of the fan beam. This thickness (of the fan beam projection) determines the width of the tissue slide in the scanning process. It is through the collimator that the slice thickness is varied between 1mm to 10mm (Smith, n.d.). The x-ray source and detector rotate around the patient (for imaging) in a circular motion such that they always remain exactly (diametrically) opposite to each other (as shown in Figure 7). During the rotation the source keeps emitting x-rays which are attenuated after passing through the patient. For a single projection (or slice), the x-ray source and detector make a complete 360o rotation around the patient. During the rotation the detector takes a large number of snapshots of the absorbed X-ray beam at different projection angles. A single image may involve approximately 800 rays and there can be up to 1,000 different projection angles (Bushberg et al., 2002). Therefore for a single projection (one slice), the detector does nearly 800,000 transmission measurements (Bushberg et al., 2002). The scanning of a single projection generally takes around 1 sec (for axial CT scanners) (FDA, 2010). Once all the transmission measurements (complete 360o) for a projection (or slice) are completed, the motorized table moves along the axis of the gantry so that the next slice of tissues forms the projection view. The process is continued till the complete required section of the body has been scanned. In the traditional CT scanners, the table moved on to the next projection (slice) only when the scanning of the previous was completed. Such conventional type of scanning is called the axial scanning. But in modern CT scanners, called the helical or spiral CT scanners, the rotation of the x-ray source and detector is accompanied with the uniform movement of the examination table, thus producing a helical projection. The helical CT scanning has been shown in Figure 9. These modern helical CT scanners are much faster than the traditional scanners due to continuous scanning process. They have been reported to take nearly half the time for scanning as compared to the traditional CT scanner s. In order to analyze and study the cardiac structure which is under constant motion, even helical CT is ineffective. For such applications a special CT scanner with an exposure time of 50ms and a maximum exposure rate of 17 images per second are used (Smith, n.d.). These scanners, called the cine CT, freeze the cardiac motion due to extremely low exposure time resulting in a sharp image (Smith, n.d.). These scanners use electron beam to generate x-rays, thus are also known as Electron Beam Computed Tomography (EBCT). In the CT scanning process large volume of data and operations are required to be processed, which is achieved with the help of multiple computers. The detector converts the intensity measurements of the attenuated x-rays in to electrical signals. The main computer, called the hub computer processes these signals and converts them into an image. These images can then be analyzed for radiotherapy planning. Result Computed Tomography (CT) has become an invaluable medical tool. It provides detailed 3-D images of various sections of the body like pelvis, soft tissues, lungs brain, blood vessels and bones (Nordqvist, 2009). Generally, CT scanning is the preferred method of diagnosing different types of cancers like liver, lungs and pancreatic cancers (Nordqvist, 2009). The tomographic images produced by the CT scan provide specific location and size of the tumor along with the details of affected tissues in the proximity of the tumor. This is especially advantageous in planning, guiding, and monitoring therapies like radiotherapy (FDA, 2010). CT scanning has various benefits over other traditional diagnostic techniques; some of the benefits are (RadiologyInfo, 2009): It is non-invasive, painless and extremely accurate. A major advantage is the ability to identify and distinguish bones, soft tissues and blood vessels in the same image. It also provides real time images which cannot be done in conventional X-rays. This technique is fast and simple; and is extensively used to locate internal injuries after accidents. It is less sensitive towards patient movement as compared to MRI. CT scanning can be used on patients with medical implants unlike the MRI. For an effective radiation therapy treatment, it is necessary that only the tumor is irradiated while minimum damage occurs to the surrounding health (normal) body tissues (Badcock, 1982). This is achieved with the help of CT imaging technique. In a study by Badcock (1982), 186 patients with various malignancies were studied and it was found that in nearly 39% of the treatment cases CT scanning was valuable in the assessment of the radiationdose calculation (Badcock, 1982). According to his study, CT scanner resulted in an alternation in target dose by more than 5%, (as compared to the traditional methods) in 27% of the patients (Badcock, 1982). The result has been shown in the table below. The mean alternation was 6.5% of the target dose and usually resulted in reduction of dose per fraction by factors upto 35% (Badcock, 1982). Even with these advantages, the adverse affect of the ionizing x-ray radiations cannot be neglected. Various experiments and researches have consolidated the fact that ionizing radiations like x-rays, gamma rays etc have adverse effect on living tissues. Zamanian Hardiman (2005) have explained that when high energy ionizing radiations interact with living tissues they strip-off atoms and molecules from them. This disrupts the chemical reaction within the body and failure in organ functioning (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The adverse effects of ionizing radiations were seen shortly after its discovery in 1890s, with a scientist involved in the study of radioactivity were reported with skin cancer in 1902. But is was not until 1944, that the role of radiations in causing leukemia in human was first documented, mainly in radiologists and physicists (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). In recent years the use of x-rays has extensviely increased in medical field for diagonostic and treatment application. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, X-ray deveices are the largest source of man-made radiation exposure (US_EPA, 2007). According to NCRP Report No. 160 (2006), the average annual effective dose per individual in the US population, from all sources has increase from 1.7mSv in 1980s to 6.2mSv in 2006. This increase is mainly attributed to the striking growth of high dose medical imaging procedures that utilize x-rays and radionuclides (NCRP, 2008). Such man-made devices include X-ray machines, CT scans etc. CT scans, especially result in high dose x-ray exposure, with nealy 100 times the exposure dose as compared to standard x-ray equipments (Coach, 2008). Some of the major risks associated with CT scanning are: It is well documented that ionizing radiaitons like x-rays have the ability to cause cancer on exposure. Therefore, the CT dose in radiotherapy increase the probabilty of cancer in the future. Even though only 4% of the total x-ray examinations are CT scans, they account for more than 20% of the radiation dose to the population by medical x-rays (King Saud University, 2004). In general, the effective dose in a CT scan procedure ranges from 2 mSv to 10mSv, which is nearly equivalent to the amount of radiation that a person receive from the background exposures in three to five years (RadiologyInfo, 2009). A CT scan during preganacy make cause serious illness or even birth defects in the unborn baby (FDA, 2010). Children are more sensitive and vulnerable to x-ray exposures than the adults, therefore their CT scanning should be done only under extremely essential and necessary conditions. Women have higher risk of developing cancer in the lifetime, as compared to men under same levels of exposure (FDA, 2009). In some rare situation of high-dose prolonged radiation exposure, the x-rays can cause adverse effects like skin reddening (erythema), skin tissue injury, hair loss, cataracts etc (FDA, 2010). In a study, Sawyer et al (2009) estimated the effective dose resulting from a cone beam CT scanning for planning of radiation therapy using thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLDs) for organ dose and using International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 60 tissue weighing factor (Sawyer et al., 2009). The results obtained for effective dose from TLD measurements and ICRP 60 weighting factor, for breast, pelvis and head simulation have been shown in the table below. The scanning process results in the exposure of the normal tissues outside the treatment volume (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). It is thus important to analyze the effect that the irradiation caused by the CT scanning process has on the patients body. In a study, Waddington McKenzie (2004) analyzed the propability of developing cancer from the irradiations caused by the extended field portal imaging techniques, the results of which are given in the table below (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). In order to illustrate a real life situation, the calulations in the study were done for an average man with a height of 170 cms and weight of 70 kgs (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). Therefore, these values may change depending upon the height, weight and tumor size of the patient. Discussion Various studies have been done to statistically evaluate the effect of the ionizing radiations on the human health. These risks have severely amplified due to the rapid increase in the number of CT scans for diagnostic applications. CT scans form nearly 5% of all procedures used in diagnostic radiology in the developed countries (Wrixon et al., 2004). In U.S., nearly 70 million CT scans were done in 2007 as compared to just 3 million done in 1980 (Steenhuysen, 2009), this includes more than 4 million children in 2006 (Brenner Hall, 2007). Thus, according to the NCRP Report no. 160, the average radiation dose per person has increased from 3.6 mSv in early 1980s to 6.2 mSv in 2006 (NCRP, 2008). Steenhuysen (2009) has reported that the radiations from CT scans done in 2007 will cause 29,000 cancers and kill nearly 15,000 people in America (Steenhuysen, 2009). These stats explain the level of exposure caused by the CT scans. According to estimates by Amy Berrington de Gonzalez of the National Cancer Institute,